Chemistry

2.1
Chemistry of non-metals
Atomic, molecular and nascent hydrogen; isotopes of hydrogen; heavy water · Types of oxides · Preparation, structure and test of ozone; ozone-layer depletion · Chemical properties of ammonia, phosphine and nitric acid · General characteristics, preparation, chemical properties and tests of chlorine, bromine and iodine · Preparation and chemical properties of HCl, HBr and HI · Allotropes of carbon; chemical properties of carbon monoxide · Chemical properties of hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid

Organic chemistry

17 questions in the paper · 11 chapters · 11/11 with notes

17 Q

Unit overview

Organic Chemistry: Unit Map and Reading OrderWhat the Organic chemistry unit covers, how many questions it carries, and the order to read its eleven chapter notes in.3 min

3.1
General organic chemistry
Tetra-covalency and catenation of carbon · Classification of organic compounds; alkyl and aryl groups; functional groups; homologous series · IUPAC nomenclature of aliphatic compounds · Isomerism · Heterolytic and homolytic bond fission · Electrophiles, nucleophiles, carbocations, carbanions and free radicals · Inductive and resonance effects

Applied chemistry

3 questions in the paper · 3 chapters · 3/3 with notes

3 Q

Unit overview

Applied Chemistry: Unit Map and Reading OrderWhat the Applied chemistry unit covers, how many questions it carries, and the order to read its three chapter notes in.3 min

4.1
Chemical industry and manufacturing processes
Chemical industry: importance and production stages · Economical production and plant management: cost, cash flow, operation and design · Continuous and batch processing · Environmental effect of the chemical industry and control measures · Cement; paper and pulp · Ostwald's process (nitric acid), Haber's process (ammonia), Contact process (sulphuric acid), diaphragm cell (caustic soda), Solvay process (sodium carbonate), ammonium-carbamate process (urea)

Analytic chemistry

3 questions in the paper · 3 chapters · 3/3 with notes

3 Q

Unit overview

Analytic Chemistry: Unit Map and Reading OrderWhat the Analytic chemistry unit covers, how many questions it carries, and the order to read its three chapter notes in.3 min

5.1
Chemical tests
Tests of acid and basic radicals · Tests of unsaturation and functional groups; distinction tests of organic compounds · Hetero-element detection by Lassaigne's test · Biomolecule tests: fat, protein and carbohydrate
Chemical Tests: The Colour That Names the CompoundBasic and acid radicals group by group, the organic functional-group tests and the distinction pairs, Lassaigne's sodium fusion, and the biomolecule colour tests.

1.3

Atomic structure

Rutherford's and Bohr's atomic models · Spectrum of the hydrogen atom · de Broglie's wave equation · Heisenberg's uncertainty principle · Orbitals and quantum numbers · Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule · Electronic configuration

Atomic Structure: From Bohr's Orbit to the Quantum OrbitalRutherford's nucleus and why it could not survive, Bohr's three formulae, the hydrogen spectrum, de Broglie and Heisenberg, and the four quantum numbers that build every configuration.12 minPremiumLocked

1.4

Classification of elements and periodicity

Modern periodic law and table · s, p, d and f block elements · Isoelectronic species · Periodic trends: atomic size, ionic size, ionisation potential, electronegativity, electron affinity, metallic character

Classification of Elements and Periodicity: Reading the TableHow a configuration places an element in the table, what isoelectronic means for size, and every periodic trend with the exceptions the paper actually asks about.10 minPremiumLocked

1.5

Chemical bonding and shape of molecules

Electronic theory of valency · Ionic, covalent and co-ordinate covalent bonds · Lewis dot structures of s- and p-block compounds · VSEPR theory and the shape of simple molecules · Valence bond theory (sigma and pi bonds) and hybridisation · Dipole moment and ionic character in covalent bonds · Bond length · Hydrogen bonding, metallic bond and van der Waals forces

Chemical Bonding and Shape of Molecules: Why Water Bends at 104.5°Lewis structures, the whole VSEPR table, hybridisation, dipole moment and the weak forces — the chapter that decides every shape, angle and polarity question in the paper.15 minPremiumLocked

1.6

Redox reactions

Classical and electronic concepts of oxidation and reduction · Oxidation number · Balancing by the oxidation-number and ion-electron methods · Applications of redox reactions

Redox Reactions: Oxidation Numbers, and Both Ways to BalanceThe four ways to define oxidation, the oxidation-number rules with every trap in them, and both balancing methods worked line by line on real equations.10 minPremiumLocked

1.7

States of matter

Gases: kinetic theory, gas laws, ideal and combined gas equation, deviation of real gases · Liquids: vapour pressure, boiling point, surface tension, viscosity, liquid crystals, solution, solubility and solubility curves · Solids: crystalline and amorphous solids, efflorescence, deliquescence and hygroscopic solids, crystallisation and water of crystallisation, crystal growth, unit cell, the 7 crystal systems and 14 Bravais lattices, classification by dominant bond

States of Matter: Gas Laws, Liquid Behaviour and the Unit CellKinetic theory and every gas law with worked numbers, what vapour pressure and surface tension really measure, and the unit-cell arithmetic that gives a metal its density.16 minPremiumLocked

1.8

Chemical equilibrium

Physical and chemical equilibrium · Law of mass action and equilibrium constants · Reaction quotient · Relationship between Kp and Kc · Le Chatelier's principle and its applications

Chemical Equilibrium: Reading Which Way a Reaction LeansDynamic equilibrium, Kc and Kp with their units, the reaction quotient, the Kp = Kc(RT)^Δn conversion and Le Chatelier applied to Haber, Contact and PCl₅ — with degree-of-dissociation numericals worked twice.11 minPremiumLocked

1.9

Volumetric analysis

Equivalent weights · Concentration: percentage, g/L, normality, molarity, molality, formality, ppm, ppb and mole fraction · Primary and secondary standard substances · Law of equivalence and the normality equation · Related numerical problems

Volumetric Analysis: Equivalents, Normality and the BuretteEquivalent weights by class of substance, every concentration unit with its conversion, primary versus secondary standards, and N₁V₁ = N₂V₂ across twelve numericals worked forward and checked back.12 minPremiumLocked

1.10

Ionic equilibrium

Arrhenius theory of ionisation · Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry and Lewis acids and bases · Ostwald's dilution law · Ionic product of water; pKa, pKb, pH and pOH · Common-ion effect, solubility and solubility product, and their applications · Acidic and basic buffer solutions · Types of salts and qualitative hydrolysis of salts · Related numerical problems

Ionic Equilibrium: pH, Buffers and the Solubility ProductThe three acid–base theories, Ostwald's dilution law, pH of strong and weak acids and of mixtures, the common-ion effect, Ksp and precipitation, buffers by Henderson–Hasselbalch, and salt hydrolysis by salt type.14 minPremiumLocked

1.11

Chemical kinetics

Rate of reaction and equivalent rate expressions · Rate constant and its unit; order and molecularity · Integrated rate laws for zero- and first-order reactions, their half-lives and characteristics · Collision theory, activation energy, threshold energy and the activated complex · Factors affecting rate · Homogeneous, heterogeneous and enzyme catalysis · Related numerical problems

Chemical Kinetics: How Fast, and What Makes It FasterRate expressions tied to stoichiometry, the units of k, order against molecularity, the zero- and first-order integrated laws, Arrhenius and activation energy, and three kinds of catalysis.14 minPremiumLocked

1.12

Electrochemistry

Electrolytic cells; qualitative and quantitative aspects of electrolysis · Standard electrode potential, standard hydrogen electrode and calomel electrode · Electrochemical series and its applications · Galvanic cells and standard emf · Commercial, primary and secondary cells; hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell · Related numerical problems

Electrochemistry: Current Into Chemistry, Chemistry Into CurrentElectrolytic against galvanic cells, Faraday's two laws and the 96,500 C, preferential discharge, the hydrogen and calomel electrodes, the electrochemical series, and the commercial cells.15 minPremiumLocked

1.13

Chemical thermodynamics

Systems and surroundings: open, closed and isolated; state of a system and state functions · Internal energy; exothermic and endothermic processes; extensive and intensive properties · Thermodynamic processes and the first law · Enthalpy of reaction, solution, formation, combustion, neutralisation, fusion and vaporisation · Laplace's law and Hess's law · Spontaneous and non-spontaneous processes; entropy and the second law · Gibbs free energy, prediction of spontaneity and its relation to the equilibrium constant · Related numerical problems

Chemical Thermodynamics: Heat, Disorder and Which Way a Reaction GoesSystems and state functions, the first law with one stated sign convention, the seven named enthalpies, Hess cycles and bond enthalpies, entropy, and ΔG = ΔH − TΔS with its four cases.16 minPremiumLocked

Chemistry of Non-metals: Prepare, Test, Use — One Table at a TimeEvery non-metal the syllabus names, drilled the way the paper asks it: how each one is made, the reactions that prove it, the test that identifies it, and what it is used for.15 minPremiumLocked

2.2

Chemistry of metals

Metallurgical principles: hydro-, pyro- and electrometallurgy; ores, gangue, flux, slag; concentration, calcination, roasting, smelting, bessemerisation, aluminothermy, electrochemical reduction, poling, electro-refining, zone refining · General characteristics of alkali and alkaline-earth metals; chemical properties of sodium, sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate · General characteristics of transition metals (3d series) · Shapes of complex ions (tetrahedral, square planar, octahedral); crystal field theory of octahedral complexes · Occurrence, extraction and chemical properties of copper, zinc, mercury, silver and iron · Chemical properties of blue vitriol, white vitriol, calomel and corrosive sublimate · Manufacture of steel by the basic-oxygen and open-hearth processes; corrosion of iron

Chemistry of Metals: From Ore to Steel, and the Rust That FollowsName every metallurgical operation with an example, run Down's cell, Castner-Kellner and Solvay from memory, split d-orbitals in an octahedral field, and write the blast-furnace reactions zone by zone.16 minPremiumLocked

2.3

Bio-inorganic chemistry

Concept of micro- and macronutrients · Biological importance of Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni, Fe, Cr and Ca ions · Sodium–potassium and sodium–glucose pumps · Toxicity of iron, arsenic, mercury, lead and cadmium

Bio-inorganic Chemistry: The Metals Your Body Cannot Do WithoutSeparate macro- from micronutrients, give each of the ten named ions a job and a deficiency, work the sodium-potassium and sodium-glucose pumps, and match every heavy metal to its disease and its chelator.11 minPremiumLocked

Organic Chemistry: Functional Groups You Must KnowThe functional groups, homologous series and reaction types that dominate the organic section.7 minPremiumLocked

3.2

Hydrocarbons

Cracking, pyrolysis and reforming; quality of gasoline, octane number, cetane number and gasoline additives · Isomerism, IUPAC names and general methods of preparation of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes · Chemical properties of ethane · Addition reactions of alkenes · Addition reactions and acidity of alkynes

Hydrocarbons: Cracking, Markovnikov and the Acidic AlkyneDefine octane and cetane numbers, prepare alkanes, alkenes and alkynes by every named route, and predict the product of any addition to a double or triple bond, peroxides included.10 minPremiumLocked

3.4

Haloalkanes and haloarenes

Nomenclature, isomerism and classification · Preparation and properties of monohaloalkanes · Concept of SN1 and SN2 mechanisms · Preparation and chemical properties of chloroform and chlorobenzene

Haloalkanes and Haloarenes: SN1, SN2 and the Chloroform BottleMake a haloalkane from any alcohol, read the whole nucleophilic substitution table, separate SN1 from SN2 on kinetics and stereochemistry, and explain why chlorobenzene and chloroform behave as they do.10 minPremiumLocked

3.5

Alcohols and phenols

Nomenclature, isomerism and classification of monohydric alcohols; preparation and chemical properties · Industrial manufacture: oxo process, hydroboration–oxidation of ethene, fermentation of sugar · Types of ethanol: absolute, power, methylated, rectified spirit, alcoholic beverages · Preparation and properties of phenol

Alcohols and Phenols: Lucas, Victor Meyer and the Ethanol GradesTell a primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol apart by three different tests, quote every ethanol grade with its percentage, and explain why phenol is a thousand times more acidic than ethanol.12 minPremiumLocked

3.8

Carboxylic acids and their derivatives

Nomenclature and isomerism · Preparation and chemical properties of monocarboxylic acids · Preparation, properties and relative reactivity of acid halides, anhydrides, amides and esters

Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives: One Carbon, Four FamiliesMake and test a monocarboxylic acid, rank acid strength from pKa and substituent effects, and walk the reactivity order acid chloride > anhydride > ester > amide in both directions.13 minPremiumLocked

3.10

Amines

Nomenclature, classification and isomerism · Preparation of primary amines · Basicity of amines · Separation of primary, secondary and tertiary amines by Hoffmann's method · Preparation and chemical properties of aniline

Amines: Basicity, the Three Tests, and AnilineSort primary, secondary and tertiary amines by Hinsberg, carbylamine and nitrous acid, explain why the basicity order flips between water and the gas phase, and run aniline through to a dye.13 minPremiumLocked

3.11

Organometallic compounds

General formula and examples of organolithium, organocopper and organocadmium compounds · Metal–carbon bonding · Preparation and chemical properties of Grignard reagent

Organometallic Compounds: What the Grignard Reagent Gives YouRead metal–carbon polarity off electronegativity, pick between RLi, R₂CuLi and R₂Cd, and predict the product of a Grignard reagent with any carbonyl after hydrolysis.9 minPremiumLocked

Chemical Industry and Manufacturing: Six Processes, One TableThe six named industrial syntheses with their raw materials, catalysts and conditions, plus cement, paper and the plant-economics vocabulary nobody else prepares.12 minPremiumLocked

4.2

Applications of non-metals, metals and compounds

Inorganic: hydrogen and its isotopes, oxygen, ozone, heavy water, hydrogen peroxide, nitrogen, ammonia, nitric acid, sulphur, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, hypo, halogens and halogen acids, carbon, carbon monoxide, phosphorus, phosphine, sodium, caustic soda, washing soda, baking soda, quick lime, slaked lime, bleaching powder, plaster of Paris, magnesia, Epsom salt, gypsum, copper, blue vitriol, black and red oxides of copper, zinc, white vitriol, mercury, calomel, corrosive sublimate, iron, silver chloride and silver nitrate · Organic: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatic hydrocarbons, chloroform, alcohols, phenol, aldehydes and ketones, ethers, haloarenes, carboxylic acids and derivatives, nitro compounds, amines, formalin, chloropicrin, chloretone, Grignard reagent

Applications of Elements and Compounds: What Each One Is ForTwo long use tables — every inorganic and organic substance the syllabus names, with its trade name and the two or three uses the paper asks for.9 minPremiumLocked

4.3

Chemistry in service to mankind

Polymers, dyes, drugs, pesticides and fertilisers · Applications of colloids, osmotic pressure and buffers in daily life · Medical and industrial applications of radioisotopes

Chemistry in Service to Mankind: Polymers, Drugs and TracersPolymers, dyes, drugs, pesticides and fertilisers, then colloids, osmosis and buffers in daily life, and the radioisotopes medicine and industry actually use.10 minPremiumLocked

5.2

Separation techniques

Filtration, sublimation, evaporation and precipitation · Simple and fractional crystallisation · Simple, fractional and vacuum distillation · Paper chromatography · Atmolysis

Separation Techniques: Choosing the Right Way to Take It ApartFiltration to atmolysis: the principle, the mixture each technique suits, its one real limitation, and the Rf and Graham's-law calculations that get asked.9 minPremiumLocked

5.3

Types of titration

Acid–base titration and selection of indicators · Redox titration: permanganometric, iodometric and iodimetric · Complexometric titration

Types of Titration: Indicators, Permanganate, Iodine and EDTAWhich indicator each acid-base pair needs, how permanganometry, iodometry and iodimetry differ, how EDTA measures hardness, and five numericals worked in full.10 minPremiumLocked

Chemistry

Whole-subject revision

Basic concepts in chemistry

Stoichiometry

Chemistry of non-metals

General organic chemistry

Chemical industry and manufacturing processes

Chemical tests

Atomic structure

Classification of elements and periodicity

Chemical bonding and shape of molecules

Redox reactions

States of matter

Chemical equilibrium

Volumetric analysis

Ionic equilibrium

Chemical kinetics

Electrochemistry

Chemical thermodynamics

Nuclear chemistry

Chemistry of metals

Bio-inorganic chemistry

Hydrocarbons

Aromatic hydrocarbons

Haloalkanes and haloarenes

Alcohols and phenols

Ethers

Aldehydes and ketones

Carboxylic acids and their derivatives

Nitro compounds

Amines

Organometallic compounds

Applications of non-metals, metals and compounds

Chemistry in service to mankind

Separation techniques

Types of titration